An international team of scientists has recovered the oldest known Homo sapiens DNA from human remains in Europe, dating back approximately 45,000 years, which sheds new light on our species’ intertwined history with Neanderthals.

The researchers sequenced ancient genomes from 13 bone fragments found in a cave beneath a medieval castle in Ranis, Germany. The remains, belonging to six individuals — including a mother, daughter, and distant cousins — provided genetic material that reveal traces of Neanderthal ancestry.

The findings indicate that their ancestors interbred with Neanderthals around 1,500 years earlier, a study published in the journal Nature details.

Since the first Neanderthal genome was sequenced in 2010, scientists have known that early humans interbred with them, but pinpointing when and where these interactions occurred has been challenging.

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They have long suspected that interbreeding took place in the Middle East, where Homo sapiens, migrating out of Africa, encountered Neanderthals who had occupied Eurasia for 250,000 years.

Another, broader study, published in the journal Science, analyzed the genomes of 59 ancient humans and 275 modern individuals, confirming that the majority of Neanderthal ancestry in modern humans stems from a single, extended period of interbreeding.

This crucial genetic exchange began around 50,500 years ago and lasted until about 43,500 years ago — just before Neanderthals vanished from the archaeological record.

The peak of this interbreeding occurred 47,000 years ago.

The genetic legacy of Neanderthals

Researchers also examined how Neanderthal DNA has influenced human evolution. Some genetic variants inherited from Neanderthals, particularly those related to the immune system, helped early humans adapt to Ice Age environments and continue to offer benefits today.

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However, Neanderthal DNA is unevenly distributed in the human genome. Some regions—termed "archaic deserts" — contain little or no Neanderthal DNA, likely due to natural selection eliminating harmful mutations that caused birth defects or infertility. The X chromosome, in particular, is largely devoid of Neanderthal genes, possibly because such variants negatively impacted male fertility.

In contrast, genes linked to immune function, skin pigmentation, and metabolism were more commonly passed down. Neanderthals were already adapted to harsh, Ice Age climates and the pathogens in those environments. When modern humans interbred with them, some inherited traits likely helped them survive and thrive, the scientists noted.

A vanished lineage

The Ranis individuals had approximately 2.9% Neanderthal ancestry, similar to most modern humans today. Despite their genetic contributions to our species, these early Europeans left no direct descendants. They were part of a pioneer population that eventually disappeared, much like other ancient human lineages, including Neanderthals.

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Interestingly, a woman who lived 143 miles (230 kilometers) away in Czechia has been genetically linked to the Ranis individuals. These early humans had dark skin, dark hair, and brown eyes, likely reflecting their recent African origins. Researchers are now analyzing additional remains from the site to reconstruct their diet and way of life.

Johannes Krause, director of archaeogenetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, which led both studies, suggests that the extinction of these early Homo sapiens populations, alongside Neanderthals, challenges the idea that our species played a direct role in Neanderthal demise.

Researchers from the United States, Spain, France, and Israel also participated in these workings.

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